It was one thing for a group of hotheads in Massachusetts to
start shooting at the Redcoats in response to the Intolerable Acts and the
Boston Massacre. It was another thing altogether to establish a unified
governing body to justify, fund, and fight a rebellion against the most
powerful army in the world. Much of this discussion and planning happened in the
streets, taverns, and formally in Philadelphia’s Pennsylvania State House, now known
as Independence Hall. The Hall also served as the birthplace for the United
States Constitution. Before we return to the battles of the Revolutionary War,
we will look how Philadelphia contributed to the creation of the United States
and the buildings there where this history happened.
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| Independence Hall in Philadelphia (Photo by Hunner) |
A lot of the intellectual fervor of the revolution centered
in Philadelphia. Granted by King Charles II in 1682 as a colonial charter to
William Penn, Pennsylvania became a place of religious freedom for Quakers and a
haven of tolerance for others. Philadelphia’s central location between the
northern and southern colonies, its position as a gateway to productive lands
in the west, and its embrace of the many peoples who flocked to its streets all
gave it a vibrancy and primacy in colonial affairs during the 18th
century.
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| Ben Franklin's first Post Office at Franklin House (Photo by Hunner) |
Three important moments in the founding of our republic
occurred at the Pennsylvania State House. First, delegates debated and signed the
Declaration of Independence there in 1776. Second, these delegates also wrote the
Articles of Confederation there. Third, in 1787 and 1788, representatives from
the newly formed states replaced the Articles with the Constitution of the
United States.
The Second Continental Congress convened on May 19, 1775 at the
State House, which in 1730s, had served as a seat of government for the colony
and then for the Revolution. As conflict erupted in Boston, the Second Congress
created the Continental Army on June 14 and appointed Virginia delegate George
Washington as its commander-in-chief the next day. In response, Washington
wrote to his wife Martha: “It has been determined in Congress that the whole
army raised for the defense of the American cause shall be put under my Care,
and that it is necessary for me to proceed immediately to Boston to take upon
me the command of it.”[1]
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| George Washington (From exhibit at Saratoga NB) |
The Congress chose Washington for several reason. He had combat
experience from the French and Indian War (1754-1760). He also came from
Virginia, the wealthiest and largest colony at the time; however, throughout
the war, delegates from other colonies, especially Massachusetts, challenged
his competence.
A curious inconsistency surfaced with the Continental
Congress. It had no legal authority to create an army, tax, print money, create
legislation, in fact no legal authority to maintain a central government over
the separate colonies. The Continental Congress created itself out of thin air,
and then it began to rally for independence and to govern.
As fighting erupted and discontent simmered, Congress in the
spring of 1776 moved toward a formal declaration of freedom. To officially sever
ties with the British Empire, it passed a resolution on May 10 calling on all
colonies to form a revolutionary government in defiance of King George and
Parliament. A “Committee of Five” composed of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin,
Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting a
resolution.
Thomas Jefferson worked on the document at the Declaration
House in Philadelphia. This resolution applied John Locke’s contract theory of
government that urged people to discard a government if it abused its power and
the rights of its citizens.
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| The table that Thomas Jefferson used to draft the Declaration of Independence (From exhibit at Declaration House in Philadelphia) |
In contrast to the aristocratic non-elected governments in
Europe, the Declaration called for a system of governance where “all people are
created equal,” where governments derive their “just Powers from the consent of
the people,” and where people need to “alter or abolish” that government if the
inalienable rights of “life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness” are curtailed.
After establishing the rights of citizens to seek freedom from an unjust form
of government, the rest of the Declaration was a list of twenty-seven specific abuses
perpetrated by the King and Parliament on the colonies.
Fifty-seven delegates signed the Declaration of Independence
in the Assembly Room of the Pennsylvania State House, including such luminaries
as Samuel and John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Philip
Livingston of New York, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. The delegates
officially ratified the declaration on July 4, 1776. The declaration has
inspired people from around the world with its call for equality and freedom;
however, written by slave owners and devoid of a woman author or signer, this call
for liberty and freedom is still a work in progress.
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| The Assembly Room at Independence Hall where the Declaration was signed on July 4, 1776 (Photo by Hunner) |
The Congress then turned to creating a way to govern the
rebellious colonies. They ratified the “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual
Union” in November 1777 which established the rules and duties for the national
government including prosecuting war and seeking peace, negotiating diplomatic
and trade agreements, and settling disputes between states. Unfortunately, the Articles
were flawed, especially since Congress had no official authority to raise money
through taxes. It struggled to finance the war with borrowed money.
As the war progressed, most people realized that the
Articles did not work. No state honored all of their financial obligations since
there were no penalties. At times, Georgia and New Jersey refused to pay
anything. Consequently, the Confederation government lacked the money to pay
even the interest on its foreign debt. By 1786, the United States defaulted on
its debts from the war as they came due. Changes had to happen.
The Constitutional Convention convened on May 14, 1787 when
delegates returned to Independence Hall in Philadelphia to correct the
Articles. By mid-June, the delegates switched from revising the existing Articles
to creating a different form of government. Some of the contentious issues
included how much power to give the federal government; how to elect
representatives to Congress and how many should come from each state; who could
vote; when to hold elections; and how to change the constitution and thus the
government? Delegates debated all of these issues and more through the summer
of 1787 in the State House.
Despite creating a democracy to give the public power over
government, our country’s founders did not really trust the people. As
Virginian James Madison observed: “if humans were angels, no government would
be necessary.” To counter human nature, the delegates turned to Montesquieu who
championed the separation of power between executive, legislative, and judicial
branches to protect individual freedoms. Only power checking power could
preserve the hard won liberty.
The convention focused on two proposals of governance—the
Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan. The Virginia Plan favored empowering the
states with larger populations. It proposed a federal government with three
branches to insure checks and balances. The legislative branch had two
houses—one elected by popular vote for three year terms and the other selected
by state legislatures for seven year terms. Representation was based on
population – larger states had more elected officials in both chambers.
The New Jersey Plan, also known as the Small State Plan, countered
the disproportionate power that the more populated states would have under the
Virginia Plan. This called for a unicameral body with one vote for each state.
In a compromise cobbled together by the Connecticut contingent, aspects of the
New Jersey Plan were incorporated into the final draft. This created a
bicameral legislature with a House of Representatives apportioned by population
and a Senate which granted equal votes to each state, big or small.
After lengthy debate and compromise, the Convention adopted
the new Constitution on September 17, 1787 and sent it out from Independence
Hall to the states for approval. Ratified by conventions in eleven States, the
Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. As the supreme law of the land,
the Constitution formed a model for representative government that launched a
democratic revolution around the world.
In addition to an elected bicameral legislature, the
Constitution also established an elected president in charge of the executive
branch and an appointed judicial system. All three have duties to ensure a
separation of powers to safeguard against abuses.
The Constitution provided the framework for a working
republic. It held many firsts as historian Joseph Ellis states: it established the first modern republic; it
created the first wholly secular nation; and it created a federal government where
multiple states and their divergent interests worked together. Despite the
strengths of the Constitution, the Founding Fathers avoided several areas which
belied the phrase that all men are created equal. For a nation created on
equality, slavery existed and in the coming years, grew in some states. Native
Americans did not receive equal protection and in fact, lost land and rights.
And women did not win the right to vote until the 20th century. While the
Constitution serves as a model for democratic governance around the world, it
also held some almost fatal flaws as well.
We will explore this when we drive to the parks that focus on the Civil
War.
The colonial men and women had fought a long and difficult
war to free themselves from King George and the Parliament. The Declaration of
Independence and the Articles of Confederation came from Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
After the war ended, the hall once again hosted the intense debates and
creation of the new republic. The resultant Constitution of the United States
has for more than two centuries served as a model for democratic governments
around the world.
Millions of people from around the world have converged on
Philadelphia, have tramped over the grassy mall, toured Independence Hall, and
visited the other buildings and sites of this National Historical Park. They
all come to look for America.
On June 28, 1948, the U.S. Congress authorized the
Independence National Historical Park which was then formally established on
July 4, 1956. Independence Hall became a UNESCO World Heritage Site on October
23, 1979.
In the next blog, we return to the war and the campaign of
1777.
